Akkadians

The name given to Semitic-speakers who lived alongside the Sumerians from early times. Cuneiform was adapted to write Akkadian which increasing came to replace Sumerian as the main spoken and written language of Mesopotamia. In the 14th century B.C. Akkadian was the diplomatic language used throughout the Near East and for correspondence with Egypt (see Amarna Letters). Some well-known English words probably derive from Akkadian: cherry, alcohol, saffron, jasper, myrrh, horn, cane, canon, lute, alkali.

Amorites

Semitic-speaking nomadic pastoralists. By 2000 B.C. these tribes threatened the cities of Mesopotamia. They gradually settled and founded a number of kingdoms of which the most famous is that of Babylon with its sixth king Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.).

Aramaeans

Semitic-speaking tribes first mentioned around 1000 B.C. They established city states throughout northern Syria and northern Mesopotamia and were a major part of the population of the Assyrian empire. They adopted the alphabet for writing Aramaean which became the main language throughout the whole of the Near East for centuries. It was the language spoken by Jesus and it still survives in a few villages near Damascus in Syria.

Assyrians

Semitic people of northern Mesopotamia, speaking a dialect of Akkadian. Their capital on the Tigris and their national god were both called Ashur. They dominated trade with Turkey from about 2000 to 1800 B.C. After a period of decline, Assyria came under the control of Mitanni, but gained its independence in 1350 B.C. (the Middle Assyrian period) and took part in the Amarna correspondence with Egypt (see Amarna Letters). After another period of decline between 1100 and 900 B.C., there was renewed Assyrian expansion and, at its height, Assyria controlled western Iran, Syria, the east Mediterranean coast, Cyprus, Egypt and much of south-eastern Turkey. The Assyrian empire was in decline by the late 7th century and its cities were finally sacked by the Medes and Babylonians in 612 B.C.

Babylonians

The city of Babylon is first mentioned around 2300 B.C. Under king Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.) Babylon gained control of the whole of southern Mesopotamia which, from this period on, can be referred to as Babylonia. A Hittite raid in 1595 B.C. brought the dynasty to an end but Babylonia recovered its importance under the Kassites and later dynasties. Under Nabopolassar (625-605 B.C.),the Babylonians captured Nineveh in 612 B.C. and gained control of the Assyrian empire. The most famous king of the dynasty was Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 B.C.). Babylon fell to the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 539 B.C., and Mesopotamia became part of the Achaemenid empire.

Chaldaeans

Semitic tribes which entered southern Babylonia between 1000 and 900 B.C., eventually establishing the Neo-Babylonian empire (612-539 B.C.).

Egyptians

In the 13th century several kings of Mesopotamia were in correspondence with the pharaohs (see Amarna Letters). The Assyrians gained control of Egypt between 671 and 655 B.C.

Elamites

These were the inhabitants of south-western Iran. The Elamites and Mesopotamians frequently raided each other's country. One of the main Elamite cities was Susa.

Hittites

People who moved into Turkey from around 2300 B.C. and established a kingdom around 1700 B.C. They expanded into Syria and came into conflict with the Egyptians. The Hittite empire collapsed around 1200 B.C.

Hurrians

People who settled in northern Syria and northern and eastern Mesopotamia from around 2500 B.C. onwards.

Kassites

From around 1500 B.C. a people called the Kassites came to control Babylonia. In the 14th century they were in correspondence with the Egyptian pharaohs (see Amarna Letters). They built a capital called Dur Kurigalzu (now Aqar Quf near Baghdad) where there is a large and well-preserved ziggurat. Their dynasty was brought to an end by invading Elamites from south-western Iran in 1157 B.C.

Medes

People who entered western Iran in the 2nd millennium B.C. The Medes, allied with the Babylonians, overthrew the Assyrian empire in 612 B.C. and expanded westwards into Turkey. In 550 B.C. the Persian ruler Cyrus the Great defeated the Medes and founded the Achaemenid empire.

Mitanni

The name of a Hurrian state established around 1500 B.C. in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. At its height, it controlled Assyria and extended to the Mediterranean. In the 14th century the kings of Mitanni corresponded with Egypt (see Amarna Letters). Mitanni was finally defeated by the Assyrians.

Persians

People who entered Iran in the 2nd millennium B.C. In the 6th century B.C., under Cyrus the Great, they established the Achaemenid empire. At its height the Achaemenid empire stretched from western Turkey and Egypt to the borders of India. Babylon was captured in 539 B.C. and Mesopotamia was under Achaemenid control until Alexander the Great defeated the Persian King Darius III in 331 B.C. and inherited the Achaemenid empire.

Semitic

The Semitic family of languages is still dominant in the Middle East. The ancient Semitic languages of Mesopotamia were Akkadian (with Babylonian and Assyrian dialects), Amorite, Aramaic and Chaldaean. Further west there were West Semitic dialects, Canaanite, Phoenician, Hebrew, Nabataean and Arabic. Hebrew and Arabic are still spoken and there are a few villages near Damascus where Aramaic is spoken.

Sumerians

Cuneiform writing was first developed for writing Sumerian. In the third millennium B.C. the Sumerians organised themselves into a series of city-states. Soon after 2000 B.C. Akkadian replaced Sumerian as the main spoken language of Mesopotamia.